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<title>Negative pulldown</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Negative pulldown</span></span>

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<p><b>Negative pulldown</b> is the manner in which an image is exposed on a <a href="Film_stock" title="Film stock">film stock</a>, described by the number of <a href="Film_perforations" title="Film perforations">film perforations</a> spanned by an individual frame. It can also describe whether the image captured on the negative is oriented horizontally or vertically. Changing the number of exposed perforations allows a <a href="Cinematographer" title="Cinematographer">cinematographer</a> to change both the <a href="Aspect_ratio_(image)" title="Aspect ratio (image)">aspect ratio</a> of the image and the size of the area on the film stock that the image occupies (which affects image clarity).

</p><p>The most common negative pulldowns for <a href="35_mm_movie_film" title="35 mm movie film">35 mm film</a> are 4-perf and 3-perf, the latter of which is usually used in conjunction with <a href="Super_35" title="Super 35">Super 35</a>. 2-perf, used in <a href="Techniscope" title="Techniscope">Techniscope</a> in the 1960s, is enjoying a slight resurgence due to the birth of <a href="Digital_intermediate" title="Digital intermediate">digital intermediate</a> techniques eliminating the need for optical lab work. Vertical pulldown is overwhelmingly the dominant axis of motion in cinematography, although horizontal pulldown is used in <a href="IMAX" title="IMAX">IMAX</a>, <a href="VistaVision" title="VistaVision">VistaVision</a>, and in <a href="135_film" title="135 film">35 mm</a> consumer and professional <a href="Still_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Still camera">still cameras</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage_of_various_formats">Usage of various formats</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3></div>

<p>The majority of 35 mm film systems, <a href="Camera" title="Camera">cameras</a>, <a href="Telecine" title="Telecine">telecine</a> equipment, <a href="Optical_printer" title="Optical printer">optical printers</a>, or <a href="Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">projectors</a>, are configured to accommodate the 4-perf system; each frame of 35 mm is 4 perforations long. 4-perf was (and remains) the traditional system, and the majority of projectors are based on 4-perf, because 4 perforations is the amount needed per frame vertically in order to have enough negative space for a roughly squarish image, which became the <a href="Silent_film" title="Silent film">silent film</a> standard <a href="Aspect_ratio_(image)" title="Aspect ratio (image)">aspect ratio</a> of 1.33:1.

</p><p>Later, when the film industry was facing the perceived threat of obsolescence to <a href="Television" title="Television">television</a>, universally a 1.33:1 aspect ratio at the time (and remained so in many countries until the introduction of <a href="Digital_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Television">DTV</a>), studios started experimenting with various competing widescreen formats.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_practice">Current practice</h2></div>

<p>Eventually, aspect ratios of 1.85:1 in <a href="North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and 1.66:1 in <a href="Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> became standard for 35 mm productions shot with normal non-<a href="Anamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anamorphic">anamorphic</a> lenses. However, the aspect ratio for these films is not created within the camera itself but is achieved during projection by placing a cropping device, known as an aperture mask, over the film. As a result, most films are shot in full-screen format—commonly, though inaccurately, referred to as 1.33:1 but actually 1.37:1 due to the inclusion of soundtracks—while being composed for aspect ratios such as 1.85:1 or 1.66:1. These films are then cropped to the desired aspect ratio during projection. Consequently, a significant portion of the film is unused, as the cropped top and bottom sections are typically not intended to be displayed unless the film was specifically protected for full-screen presentation. The 3-perf and 2-perf systems are employed only during the origination and post-production transfer stages.

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Techniscope" title="Techniscope">Techniscope</a></div>

<p>2-perf camera systems use 2 perforations per frame on 35 mm film with an aspect ratio close to 2.39:1; the aspect ratio used in <a href="Anamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anamorphic">anamorphic</a> prints. It was first proposed conceptually around 1930, but was not put into practice until 1961, when <a href="Techniscope" title="Techniscope">Techniscope</a> was developed at <a href="Technicolor" title="Technicolor">Technicolor</a>'s Italian branch. It has recently been brought up again with the advent of higher quality, lower grain <a href="Film_stock" title="Film stock">film stocks</a> as well as <a href="Digital_intermediate" title="Digital intermediate">digital intermediate</a> post-production methods which eliminate optical blowups and thus improve quality. While in the recent past, some companies have offered custom conversions of camera equipment to 2-perf, it appears that camera manufacturers are now poised to support the format. <a href="Arri" title="Arri">Arri</a> made 2-perf movement blocks for their <a href="Arricam" title="Arricam">Arricam</a> and <a href="Arriflex_235" title="Arriflex 235">Arriflex 235</a> cameras available for rental in March 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Aaton" class="mw-redirect" title="Aaton">Aaton</a>'s <a href="Aaton_Penelope" title="Aaton Penelope">Penelope</a> camera, released in October 2008, was the first camera specifically designed for 2-perf usage (as well as 3-perf).

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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Super_35" title="Super 35">Super 35</a></div>

<p>In the early 1980s, Swedish cinematographer <a href="Rune_Ericson" title="Rune Ericson">Rune Ericson</a> collaborated with <a href="Panavision" title="Panavision">Panavision</a> on the concept of creating a 3-perf mechanism for motion picture cameras.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 3-perf system, achieved by altering the camera gate and shutter mechanism, reduces film wastage by using frames that are 3 perforations high instead of the standard 4-perforations. <sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results in an aspect ratio of approximately 1.85:1, which closely aligns with the widescreen television aspect ratio of 1.78:1, thereby minimizing image loss outside this aspect ratio. Due to the smaller frame size, the camera operates about 25% slower, leading to a 25% reduction in film stock usage. Additionally, the camera operates more quietly because less film passes through the mechanism per frame. The <a href="Super_35" title="Super 35">Super 35</a> variant of 3-perf also provides a larger negative area, which can help offset the increase in grain when using higher-speed film stocks.

</p><p>In the late 1990s, cinematographer <a href="Vittorio_Storaro" title="Vittorio Storaro">Vittorio Storaro</a> proposed a film standard known as <a href="Univisium" title="Univisium">Univisium</a> (also called Univision), which advocated for 3-perf Super 35 to create a 2.00:1 aspect ratio.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages_of_3-perf_and_2-perf">Disadvantages of 3-perf and 2-perf</h3></div>

<p>One disadvantage of 3-perf and 2-perf is found when projected theatrically, as it needs to be transferred back to a 4-perf system. This typically involves a <a href="Film_print" class="mw-redirect" title="Film print">film print</a> with black cropping on the print itself in order to fit the image onto a 4-perf frame – encountering the same wastage problem as before. Even so, the amount of film shot on a production is much greater than the length of the final film, so 3-perf or 2-perf are still viable cost-saving options for production. Generally, 3-perf is most frequently used for <a href="Widescreen" title="Widescreen">widescreen</a> television productions shot on film, as film is developed and then transferred to <a href="Videotape" title="Videotape">video</a>, rendering projection incompatibilities irrelevant. Recently, this process has become popular with big-budget motion picture production, due to the advent of the <a href="Digital_intermediate" title="Digital intermediate">digital intermediate</a> process. The negative is scanned to high resolution (usually HD, 2K or 4K (<a href="Digital_cinema" title="Digital cinema">digital cinema</a>)) digital files, colour graded, and ultimately printed back to standard 4-perf for projection. At some point in the future, the final 4-perf print will become unnecessary assuming the cinema distribution and projection chain become fully digital.

</p><p>3-perf and 2-perf pose minor problems for visual effects work. The area of the film in 4-perf work that is not projected nonetheless contains picture information which is useful for such visual effects tasks as 2D and 3D tracking. This mildly complicates certain visual effects efforts for productions using 3-perf and 2-perf.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VistaVision">VistaVision</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="VistaVision" title="VistaVision">VistaVision</a></div>

<p><b>VistaVision</b> is a higher resolution, <a href="Widescreen" title="Widescreen">widescreen</a> variant of the <a href="35_mm_movie_film" title="35 mm movie film">35 mm motion picture film</a> format which was created by <a href="Paramount_Pictures" title="Paramount Pictures">Paramount Pictures</a> in 1954. It uses a horizontal, 8 perforation 35 mm image, similar to that used in <a href="135_film" title="135 film">135 film</a> for <a href="Photography" title="Photography">still photography</a>. Paramount did not use <a href="Anamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anamorphic">anamorphic</a> processes such as <a href="CinemaScope" title="CinemaScope">CinemaScope</a> but refined the quality of their flat widescreen system by orienting the 35 mm negative horizontally in the camera gate and shooting onto a larger area, which yielded a finer-grained projection print.

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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="70_mm_film" title="70 mm film">70 mm film</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_65_mm_(5/70)_(Todd-AO,_Super_Panavision)">Standard 65 mm (5/70) (Todd-AO, Super Panavision)</h3></div>

<ul><li>spherical lenses</li>

<li>5 perforations/frame</li>

<li>42 frames/meter (12.8 frame/ft)</li>

<li>34.29 meters/minute (112.5 ft/minute)</li>

<li>vertical pulldown</li>

<li>24 frames/second</li>

<li><i>camera aperture</i>: 52.48 by 23.01 mm (2.066 by 0.906 in)</li>

<li><i>projection aperture</i>: 48.56 by 20.73 mm (1.912 by 0.816 in)</li>

<li>305 m (1000 feet), about 9 minutes at 24 frame/s = 4.5 kg (10 pounds) in can</li>

<li><i>aspect ratio</i>: 2.2:1</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultra_Panavision_70_(MGM_Camera_65)">Ultra Panavision 70 (MGM Camera 65)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ultra_Panavision_70" title="Ultra Panavision 70">Ultra Panavision 70</a></div>

<p><i>Same as Standard 65 mm except</i>

</p>

<ul><li>Shot with special anamorphic adapter in front of lens</li>

<li>1.25× squeeze factor, projected aspect ratio 2.76:1</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Showscan">Showscan</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Showscan" title="Showscan">Showscan</a></div>

<p><i>Same as Standard 65 mm except</i>

</p>

<ul><li>60 frames per second</li></ul>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="IMAX" title="IMAX">IMAX</a></div>

<ul><li>spherical lenses</li>

<li>15 perforations per frame</li>

<li>horizontal movement, from right to left (viewed from base side)</li>

<li>24 frames per second</li>

<li><i>camera aperture</i>: 70.41 by 52.63 mm (2.772 by 2.072 in)</li>

<li><i>projection aperture</i>: at least 2 mm (0.080 in) less than camera aperture on the vertical axis and at least 0.4 mm (0.016 in) less on the horizontal axis</li>

<li><i>aspect ratio</i>: 1.35:1 (camera), 1.43:1 (projected)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynavision_(8/70)_(Also_known_as_Iwerks_8/70)">Dynavision (8/70) (Also known as Iwerks 8/70)</h3></div>

<ul><li>fisheye or spherical lenses, depending on if projecting for a dome or not</li>

<li>vertical pulldown</li>

<li>24 or 30 frames per second</li>

<li><i>camera aperture</i>: 52.83 by 37.59 mm (2.080 by 1.480 in)</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_film_formats" class="mw-redirect" title="List of film formats">List of film formats</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arri advertisement, <i>British Cinematographer</i>, March 2007, p. 2.</span>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.svenskfilmdatabas.se/en/item/?type=person&itemid=61955">"Rune Ericson biography"</a>. <i>The Swedish Film Database</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-20</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This sentence has been corrected from its original version 'This results in an aspect ratio of approximately 1.78:1, which closely aligns with the widescreen television aspect ratio of 1.85:1' If correction shouldn't have happened, please re-edit and remove this, if it is correct and rightly happened, please remove this</span>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080118094257/http://www.arri.de/prod/cam/technology_3_perforation.htm">3 PERFORATION - SAME IMAGE QUALITY AT LOWER COSTS</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060713061542/http://www.aaton.com/products/film/35/3perf.php">The future of 35mm filmmaking: standard rawstock but 3perf/picture instead of 4perf.</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Movie_Making_Manual/Post-production/Telecine" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Movie Making Manual/Post-production/Telecine">Movie Making Manual wikibook article on Telecine</a> including a list of facilities that can telecine 2-perf</li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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